Should Women Serve in the Military - 1989 Words

Topic: Should women serve in the military? The essence of war is not good. During the WWI, more than ten million dead and tens of millions disabled; cities, villages, roads, bridges, factories were destroyed. The amount of money for war costs up to about eighty four billion dollars [9]. The fate of those who faced a battle between life and death was questioned. The world was considering that was it worth to sacrifice that much? Especially, women played a big role in army and they have had to suffer after the war ended even. Today, women are more active and independent. They join many fields and keep high positions in companies. However, speaking of inducting in army, the problem is still lingering. The story still continues to decide†¦show more content†¦The second determinant of deciding whether women should induct to army is psychological aspects. Women are easily psychologically affected. It is hard for them to get used to blood or violent fighting. They may get scared when facing a partner who is bleeding and do not know what to do even though they are well trained. Moreover, it takes more time to train a female soldier familiar with fighting or combat. They could get clumsy whilst having real situation due to unstably psychology. This will affect not only herself but also her partners since military needs readiness while in actions. Another aspect is love. Women tend to be loved and like to be embraced. They are easily soft hearted facing something reminds them of family, lover or old memory. Sometimes, feelings can influence the others. For example, when seeing an injured enemy, a woman may feel merciful and worst, that will cost her killed. Last but not least, changing personalities or appearances negatively during process of military service can be considered. Decide if your hair is going to work for you while youre at Boot Camp. My hair was long and I wasnt about to fix my hair up in a bun every day. With the intense training I would have to fix my hair all of the time, especially with the sticklers the Drill Sergeants are about soldier representation. A soldier also told me that some of the female soldiersShow MoreRelatedWhy Women Should Be Drafted and Serve in the U.S. Military during War1291 Words   |  6 PagesSection #15654 April 22, 2013 Why Women Should be Drafted and Serve in the U.S. Military during Time of War Throughout time women have gone to war along-side their male counterparts without any question as to what role they couldn’t play but rather what contributions they brought with them. History shows that women have played a vital role in military combat and have been very successful filling any role that their male equivalent has played during combat. Military women have led armies into battle,Read MoreWhy Women Should Fight The Front Line1321 Words   |  6 PagesI Believe Women Should Be On The Front Line I believe women should fight side by side with men. I believe women are equal to men, there s only a physical difference but we are all the same. Women can do everything a man can. If women fight in the front line i think there would be less casualties than there right now. Although women should be fighting in front line in the military many believe they should not. More than 200,000 position will still be remain exclusive to men. women won t beRead MoreWomen As A Person s Gender1408 Words   |  6 PagesRobert Mau Ms. Strohlin U.S. History 10 May 2015 Women Serving In Combat The simple factor of a person’s gender, in some cases, restricts a person from having the chance to get the same opportunities as another gender. In The United States of America, the problem of women not even having the chance to receive the same opportunities as men, has become a growing problem. The Declaration of Independence, one of the documents that The United States of America was founded upon, says the words, â€Å"†¦AllRead MoreEssay Military Women Should NOT Be Allowed in Combat Positions1223 Words   |  5 Pagesfeelings in the United States that, as women are having more rights given to them that were previously restricted, women should be given everything that is offered to men. This is becoming very true in the military, where much sentiment is that women should be given the opportunity to serve in combat arms positions. Women are currently allowed to serve in combat support positions, such as military intelligence and air support positions, but they ar e not allowed to serve in positions such as infantry, armorRead MoreWomen Should Be Allowed For The Military Combat Just Like The Men1148 Words   |  5 PagesWoman should be allowed to serve in the military combat just like the men. The year 1994 was the year they banned women from being in military combat. Ever since January 2013 they have tried to find ways to lift the ban. In January 2016 they had to decide whether women should or should not be in combat. Women have performed in combat some have even died in defense of our county. The woman served regardless the problem. It was recommended by the marine corps to open up positions to women regardlessRead MoreEssay about Is the exclusion of women from frontline combat sexism?1103 Words   |  5 PagesExcluding women from frontline combat is essentially sexist. Regardless of the many substantial contributions women have made to the United States military from the American Revolutionary war to the contemporary Iraq and Afghanistan wars, it has long been a sanctuary of masculinity, which consequently, has resulted in the organization’s steadfast resistance against women’s direct martial participation. The opponents of women frontline combat argue that females are unable to execute the requiredRead MoreReasons to Not Allow Women in the Front Lines1775 Words   |  7 Pages200,000 plus women are on active duty for the military out of 1.4 million serving. Out of the 200,000, 2.7 percent of them make up the front line units (CNN). This is approximately 5,400 women that are enlisted and are f ighting on the front lines. This number is very low and should be much higher. This number represents the idea that the military believes women should not be on the front lines. Many people in society believe that what the military is doing is wrong and females should be able to fightRead MoreWomen Should Not Be Allowed For Military Combat1507 Words   |  7 PagesMany people believe that women should not be allowed to serve in military combat. This is ridiculous, as many women have achieved great military success throughout history. At first, women mainly served as nurses and sometimes as spies, as in the cases of Harriet Tubman and Mary Ludwig Hays. â€Å"Mary went to a nearby stream and repeatedly carried containers of water to the soldiers...she also carried wounded men to safety and took over firing her husband’s gun when he became wounded† (Worth 16). TubmanRead MoreWomen During World War II1508 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout American history, women have contr ibuted greatly to the war effort and military support of our troops. It began as early as the Revolutionary War when women followed their husbands to war out of necessity. Many served in military camps as laundresses, cooks, and nurses but only with permission from the commanding officers and only if they proved they were helpful (â€Å"Timeline: Women in the U.S. Military†). During World War II, more than 400,000 women served at home and abroad as mechanicsRead MoreNearly One-Fifth Of The U.S Military Is Female, However1319 Words   |  6 Pagesthe U.S military is female, however certain jobs are not eligible for women. Is it believed that women are not considered for front-line combat and Special Forces positions. Opponents argue that women are physically not capable of being effective for troops and would distract men making the military less effective. However women are fully capable of becoming troops the only thing holding them back is the stereotype that they are not physically capable of handing combat roles. Women in the military

Significant Themes in Murmuring Judges by David Hare Essay

The purpose of this essay is to identify the significant themes in Murmuring Judges by David Hare and to show how these themes have been presented to the audience. David Hare graduated from Cambridge University in 1968; that same year he co-founded the Portable Theatre Company with his friend Richard Bicat. Ironically he was to launch his writing career because the Company was left in the lurch by a playwright just four days before rehearsals were due to start. Hare jumped into the breach and penned a short satirical piece on the unlikelihood of revolution in Britain. This rather hasty first attempt at writing turned out to be a resounding success; which inspired Hare to further writings.†¦show more content†¦This perception that those people within the Judiciary are out of touch; perhaps even oblivious to normal life is affirmed in Hare’s delivery of the discussion about fundraising for the Bar between Cuddeford, Sir Peter and Irene. â€Å"We started fund-raising for a campaign about 4 days ago.† â€Å"How much have you raised?† â€Å"One million† â€Å"That sounds an auspicious start. One million?† David Hare has the ability to elicit extremes of sentiment from his audience; as succinctly as he alludes to the pomposity of the members of the Judiciary, he provokes sympathy and empathy in equal measures for Gerard, the ‘would be’ villain of the piece. The audience become privy to Gerard’s thoughts in a stream of consciousness as he stands awaiting the verdict of the Jury at his trial. What they see is a rather scruffy youth with long unkempt hair; however his thoughts are in fact eloquent and emotive; eliciting from the audience a certain amount of sympathy for his predicament. â€Å"Finally I get it, yes, it is happening, these men, every one of them silver haired, judicious, informed, they will go home to their wives, to wine in fine glasses and gossip of the Bar, they will walk the streets and complain about their lives, and I...And I† Hare shows that despite appearances; here stands a young man who can look around him and identify the reality of the situation. What is more he isShow MoreRelatedProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 PagesConventional accounting reports do not show the cost effects of these technical decisions until it is too late to reconsider. We would need to provide the project manager with cost commitment reports at each decision state to enable him or her to judge when costs are getting out of control. Only by receiving such timely cost commitment reports, could the project manager take needed corrective actions and be able to approximate the cost effect of each technical decision. Providing all these reports

Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights Assignment Free Essays

string(186) " this case is a suspect of an impending terrorist attack with the use of a bomb will be insufficient when determining whether the actions of the police will fall under Article 3 or not\." Abstract It is vital that all individuals are afforded sufficient protection of their human rights under the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). However, much difficulty occurs when such rights are being protected at the expense of national security. Accordingly, whilst it is felt that the protection of the public should prevail on the one hand, it is argued on the other that individual rights should always be upheld. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights Assignment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Essentially, violations of human rights should only be made in extreme circumstances. Whether suspected terrorism should fall within the ambit of one of these exceptions is arguable, especially when there has been a threat of torture as it will be for the courts to strike a balance between the two competing interests. It will be discussed in this assignment whether the threat of the use of torture is an acceptable practice that is capable of being employed by the police during an interrogation or whether it is actually a violation of the ECHR. Introduction It will be critically discussed whether the interrogation of the suspect and the threat of the use of force will amount to a violation of the suspects rights under the European Convention of Human Rights. In doing so, Article 3 will be given consideration followed by a review as to whether the interests of national security should also be given consideration in light of the fact that there was an impending terrorist attack. European Convention on Human Rights and Torture The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was established in 1950 by the Council of Europe. The main objective of the Convention is to ensure that adequate protection for individual’s human rights and fundamental freedoms is being provided. Ensuing from the Convention was the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), which was set up in order to provide individuals with the ability to take their case to court if they felt that their rights were undermined. Article 3 of the ECHR imposes a strict prohibition against torture and â€Å"inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.† Accordingly, this is one of the strictest Articles that exist under the Convention as there are no available exceptions to it and as is stated in the Convention; the prohibitions are made in the strictest terms irrespective of the victims conduct., Whilst this Article generally applies to any cases involving torture, unjustified deportations and degrading treatment, it is those cases involving police violence and poor detention conditions that frequently seek protection (Kamau, 2006: 15). Article 3 is thus of significant importance in preserving the interests of individuals and States must ensure that such treatment does not occur within their territory. It is questionable how effective Article 3 is in preventing such treatment being inflicted upon individuals, nonetheless, given the many cases that come before the courts. Regardless, the ECtHR will make great attempts to rectify any injustice that occurs, yet they have made clear that the level of torture that is being inflicted must be of such a level so as to enable it to fall within the ambit of Article 3; McCallum v The United Kingdom, Report of 4 May 1989, Series A no. 183, p. 29. It is questionable whether the threat of use of torture by the police in this scenario does actually fall under Article 3 since it cannot be said whether the level of the threat was significant. It is often difficult to determine whether a cause of actions will fall within the ambit of Article 3 since not all treatment that is considered punitive will amount to torture for the purposes of the ECHR. Essentially, the courts have made it clear in numerous cases that the level of seriousness will need to be high in order for their rights under the Convention to be activated. Because of this threshold it has often been extremely difficult for victims to establish their case as demonstrated in the Ireland v The United Kingdom, 18 January 1978, Series A no. 25. Here, it was made clear by the Court of Appeal that the assessment as to what the minimum level shall be will be dependent upon the individual circumstances of the case. Hence, the factors for the court to take into account when determining the seriousness of the treatment include the victims; age, sex, physical and mental effects and health. It was further evidenced by the court in Soering v The United Kingdom, judgement of 7 July 1989, Series A no. 161; â€Å"the severity will depend on all if the circumstances of the case, such as nature and context of the treatment or punishment and the manner and method of its execution.† The determination as to whether treatment or punishment will be deemed to be torture for the purposes of Article 3 may also differ from place to place given that different countries have different perceptions of torture. There has been an attempt to achieve co-operation between States in order to ensure that there is some consistency within this area, yet complexities still arise. In Greek Case, 5 November 1969, YB XII, p. 501, the European Commission of Human Rights noted the following; â€Å"it is plain that there may be treatment to which all of these descriptions apply, for all torture must be inhuman and degrading treatment and inhuman treatment also degrading.† It cannot be said that the suspect in this instance has suffered from inhuman or degrading treatment since he was merely threatened with the use of force if he did not inform the police of the bomb’s location. Article 3 is one of the most important protections that is provided under the Convention as its sole purpose is to â€Å"protect a person’s dignity and physical integrity† (Reidy, 2002: 19). This is why the courts are unable to take into account the victims conduct since individuals should be provided with the ultimate protection against torture. The fact that the victim in this case is a suspect of an impending terrorist attack with the use of a bomb will be insufficient when determining whether the actions of the police will fall under Article 3 or not. You read "Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights Assignment" in category "Essay examples" Regardless of this, however, the courts will take into account the difficulties associated with the maintenance of national security. Therefore, although the conduct of the victim will not be capable of being considered by the court, the fact that the police were trying to prevent a bomb from exploding will be as the police will be found to have been acting in the interests of national security; Tomais v France, Judgement of 27 August 1992, Series A no. 241. In the case of Ilhan v Turkey the applicant had been severely beaten at the time of his arrest and was refused medical treatment for a significant amount of time. The court found that the victim had been subjected to torture in this instance. Accordingly, it will thus depend upon the type of interrogation the victim suffers, which is unclear from the facts of this case. In Assenov v Bulgaria, Judgement of 28 October 1998, Reports 1998-VIII it was held that as a result of the interrogation the victim suffered from torture even though it was unclear who actually caused the injuries sustained by the victim. Again, this demonstrates that provided that the victim has suffered from serious injuries, it is likely that protection will be afforded under Article 3. This is also exemplified in Rehbock v Slovenia where the use of force was co nsidered unjustifiable on the grounds that the authorities could not provide any valid justification for why the injuries were so serious. If the authorities cannot justify the threat of the use of force, then it is likely that a breach of the ECHR will be found. Arguably, if the injuries sustained by the victim during the course of the interrogation are significant, then this will trigger the protection under Article 3. In deciding whether the conduct of the police will amount to torture, it will first need to be considered what actions will be considered to be of a torturous nature. There have been various definitions as to what torture consists of since it can be applied to a varying degree of situations. Regardless, it is evident that torture occurs in situations where an individual is subjected to â€Å"severe pain and suffering† as provided in the United Nations Convention against Torture. However, it will not be enough in this case to shown that the suspect was subjected to â€Å"severe pain and suffering.† Instead the whole context of the situation will need to be considered. In doing so, a review as to whether the interrogation techniques used by the Police were acceptable will need to be made. Whether this will be easy to determine is unlikely since it is questionable what will amount to acceptable interrogation techniques and as put by Amnesty International (2009: 417); â€Å"Torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment can never be justified. They are never legal. Even in a state of emergency, there can be no exemption from this obligation and there is no such thing as torture perpetrated in â€Å"good faith† or â€Å"reasonable† circumstances.† Arguably, it is evident that Amnesty International does not agree with interrogation regardless as to the situation. Nevertheless, the suspect may be able to rely on the nemo tenetur seipsum accusare principle which means; â€Å"no man has to accuse himself.† This principle could effectively act as a safeguard by preventing inappropriate methods of interrogation from being used. It could be deemed inappropriate to threaten suspects with the threat of the use of force, yet based on the circumstances this appear unli kely given the impending bomb explosion. This was identified by Chiesa (2009: 2) when he pointed out that; â€Å"the nemo tenetur principle should be understood as a safeguard against the use of unacceptable methods of police interrogation.† It is questionable whether this principle will act as a safeguard, however, since it is very difficult to determine when torture has taken place as â€Å"it is not clear in the present laws† (IBN, 2010: 3). Because of this, there are often what is considered to be ‘borderline’ cases where it is difficult to see if torture has actually occurred. As a result, it cannot be said that Article 3 ECHR does actually protect individuals from torture in every situation. Accordingly, it has been said that the police routinely engage in interrogating behaviour when trying to extract confessions from individuals, yet this is generally not considered to amount to torture (Chair, 2004: 68). In view of this, it is clear that the distinction between police brutality and tortur e cannot be easily ascertained and as noted by Spicer (2007: 157) â€Å"the definition of torture and its distinction from inhuman or degrading treatment is problematic and has generated a mass of case law in the ECHR.† It is thus difficult to distinguish torture from inhuman and degrading treatment, which is why cases are frequently coming before the courts involving police brutality. This is completely unacceptable and there ought to be some protection available to individuals in preventing them from being subjected to torture: â€Å"the government should investigate, discipline those found to be implicated, and train officers to interrogate suspects without coercion† (Human Rights Watch, 2010: 1). In order to clarify the position within this area, however, the United Nations have attempted to define torture by stating under Article 1 that â€Å"torture means any act which by severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a perso n for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession.† Consequently, it would appear as though the police have inflicted torture upon the suspect because although they have not physically harmed him, they have in fact made threats against him. Thus, given that mental suffering is contained within the definition of torture as provided for under Article 1, it is likely that this type of behaviour will be considered a violation of the ECHR. Despite this, it could also be argued that because the police have arrested the suspect on suspicion of an impending terrorist attack, and have made such interrogations so as to prevent the attack from taking place, that the torture is reasonable. This is because, the police need to find out where the bomb is in order to protect society from harm and given that they only have only a few hours before the bomb explodes, it is integral that they obtain as much information out of the suspect as possible. Consequently, it could be said that the threat of the use of torture in interrogating the suspect is appr opriate based on the individual facts. In Binyam Mohamed Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2010] EWCA Civ 65; [2010] WLR (D) 31 it was expressed that torture will amount to a violation of Article 3 as this will generally be considered unacceptable behaviour. Clearly, this illustrates that some protection will be afforded to individuals subject to the use of torture, yet it is questionable whether this applies to the current situation given that only a threat was made. As noted by Johns (2005: 16), however; â€Å"no human being is without protection under international law and in every circumstance, every human being has some forms of protection under human rights law.† Therefore, where torture, or the threat of torture, is carried out individuals should have some form of protection available to them, yet it is debatable whether this protection is adequate since the interest of national security may outweigh the interests of the individual. The Binyam case has been the subject of much critique as the US made great attempts to prevent evidence of torture from being disclosed. This led many to also question the practices of the UK who work closely with the US in the fight against terrorism (Smith, 2009: 9) and there was a strong debate as to whether national security would be damaged if the detainee’s human rights were to be protected. This resulted in difficulty as it had to be determined whether the interests of national security or the interests of the individual were to prevail. Applying this to the instant situation, the question to be asked is whether national security would be affected, if the rights of the suspect were protected by the ECHR. Given that a bomb is about to explode, it is necessary for the police to obtain the relevant information from the suspect so that they can locate the bomb in order to protect the public from harm. Given that human rights took precedent over national security in the Biny am case, the same could also apply here. However, as put by Burke-White (2004: 17) the interests of the two are in fact mutually exclusive â€Å"promote human rights at the expense of national security or protect national security while overlooking international human rights.† Therefore, it will be difficult to determine what interests ought to be preserved in any given case as the factors to be taken into consideration will differ largely from case to case. Furthermore, not all agreed with the decision in the case and many argued that the interests of national security should have been given greater prominence: â€Å"which is more important, the human rights of a suspected al-Qaeda operative, or protecting the British people from terror attacks?† (Coughlin, 2010: 1). The interests of national security are clearly at stake since the bomb explosion could lead to serious harm. It is questionable whether the interests of the suspect should therefore be given greater consi deration given the fact that a large proportion of the population may be subjected to harm. It is questionable why the protection of the majority did not prevail in Binyam and seems to illustrate that the human rights of the suspect in the instant case may also be preserved. Rather than demonstrating a victory for the protection of human rights principles, the case has been viewed with much dismay at the way in which the government handled the case (Londras, 2010: 17). Because of the significant interest that surrounded the case it seems as though the government would have been under much scrutiny had a different decision been made. In accordance with this, it is not certain that the human rights of the suspect in the instant situation will be protected since the suspect has been subjected to a threat of torture on the basis of the imminent bomb explosion. Thus, it is extremely difficult for the judiciary to protect individual liberties and rights when the government plays the national security card (Robson, 2010: 174). This is further evidenced by the continuance reference s that were made to open justice in the Binyam case: â€Å"the principle of open justice represents an element of democratic accountability and the vigorous manifestation of the principle of freedom of expression which ultimately supports the rule of law itself† (per Lord Chief Justice). Consequently, it became apparent that the judges were cautious when making their decision and as a result it is evident that human rights will not always be protected over the interests of national security as it will again depend entirely upon the individual circumstances of the case. It is clear from the decision that there is a conflict between the protections of individual human rights with the protections of national security. However, it is still extremely difficult to determine which interest is the most important and more likely to be successful in the instant case. Simply because human rights came out on top in the Binyam case does not illustrate they will come out on top in all other cases. This is especially so given that the court appeared under pressure by the Minister of the Crown to reach this decision. Hence, it is argued on the one hand that human rights should always succeed, yet on the other that the interests of national security should also be given recognition (Salomon, 2007: 5). However, in ensuring that individuals are free from torture, a strict prohibition against the use of torture must be effectuated. This is because if individuals were not being given sufficient protection against torture, national authorities would be capable of abusing their powers and inflicting harm and degrading treatment upon individuals suspected of a crime (Churcher, 2009: 1). Given that the majority are protected from terrorism, whilst the minority are protected from torture it seems as though greater emphasis ought to be placed upon individual righ ts in order to ensure that their interests provided by the ECHR are being preserved. It is arguable whether this can be justified, however, because as Woodward (2010: 19) argues; â€Å"the need to feel safer is a need that has in large part been manufactured by those eager to capitalize on the economic value of fear.† Therefore, it is integral that national security is also being preserved, which is why it will be very difficult to decide on a reasonable outcome in cases where human rights and national security conflicts. In Dushka v Ukraine, Judgement of ECHR, February 02, 2011 it was found by the Court that the unlawful detention and questioning of a 17 year old amounted to torture and was thus a violation of Article 3. Thus, it was stated by the court that given the applicant’s vulnerable age, the practice being employed did qualify as inhuman and degrading treatment regardless as to the applicant’s conduct. In light of this decision it could be said that the treatment being imposed upon the suspect will also amount to inhuman and degrading treatment although the courts will determine the circumstances of the case as a whole taking into account the fact that a bomb was about to explode. The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act (ATCSA) 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 do, however, appear to conflict with the ECHR because of the fact that authorities are now provided with greater powers when it comes to the elimination of terrorism. As stated by Herron (2011: 1); â€Å"whilst the new powers avoided the directly discriminatory nature of executive detention in so-doing they broadened the potential applicability of other of its rights-infringing characteristics, which were retained within the new regime.† The provisions that have been provided for under these acts appear largely detrimental to individual rights and freedoms, yet this is deemed necessary in protecting individuals against the threat of terrorism can; R (on the Application of BB) v Special Immigration Appeals Commission [2011] All ER 210. Here, the court highlighted the importance of preserving the interests of national security was. Nevertheless, it is still evident that whilst the hu man rights of individuals are to be maintained, the rights of ordinary citizens also need to be given consideration. A balancing act between the two competing interests is therefore required, yet as has been discussed this is proving to be rather problematic. Ames (2005: 2) believes that â€Å"any restriction on rights must be imposed with reference to the rule of law and be subject to proper safeguards, such as judicial scrutiny.† Therefore, it must be ensured that any restrictions placed upon the rights of individuals and citizens are in accordance with the rule of law to prevent unlawful infringement from occurring. This was clearly reflected in the Binyam case since it became apparent that the rule of law was not capable of being departed from regardless as to whether the person seeking protection was a terrorist or not. This has been criticised by many since it is believed that the government used the national security card when undertaking activity that would usually be considered unlawful: â€Å"under cover of â€Å"national security† and â€Å"protecting the public† governments can embark on actions that might be unpopular, even unjust, and hope not to be called to account† (Robson, 2010: 200). This is unacceptable and unless the rule of law is continuously upheld in, democratic governance will be threatened. Essentially, it is thereby palpable that the interrogation the suspect has suffered by the Police is unlawful and contrary to the provisions of Article 3, yet the authorities may still be able to rely upon the national security defence when putting forward there reasons. This will make it much more difficult for the suspect to argue that there has been a violation of their rights under the ECHR as the police may be able to demonstrate that national security was at risk. This is because the interests of society as a whole will usually be afforded greater protection than individual interests. Conclusion Overall, it does appear as though the treatment the suspect has received from the police is a violation of his rights under the ECHR. However, given the complexity of the case, it is likely that there will be much difficulty when trying to determine whether such rights should be enforced over the interests of national security. Accordingly, the case will involve a balancing act by the courts to establish whether the interests of the suspect ought to prevail given that the public was at risk of harm. This will be extremely difficult to determine, although in light of recent cases such as Binyam, it is likely that the courts will find the interests of the suspect will prevail. References Ames, J. (2005) ‘News: 90-day Detention Plans Shelved’ 3 Law Society Gazette 2, Issue 45. Amnesty International. (2009) Impunity for CIA Torture is Incompatible with USA’s International Obligations, [Online] Available at: http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/obama-accused-quotcondoning-torturequot-20090417 [15 December 2013]. Burke-White, W. W. (2004) ‘Human Rights and National: Security: The Strategic Correlation’, Harvard Human Rights Journal, Volume 17, [Online] Available: http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss17/burke-white.shtml [16 December 2013]. Chair, J. (2004) Torture: A Collection, Oxford University Press, Political Science. Chiesa, L. E. (2009) Beyond Torture: The Nemo Tenetur Principle in Borderline Cases, PACE Law Faculty Publications, PACE University, (2009), Available [Online] at: http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1642context=lawfaculty [16 December 2013]. Churcher, J. (2010) UK intelligence knew of terror suspects torture, The Independent UK, (24 November, 2009), [Online] Available: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-intelligence-knew-of-terror-suspects-torture-1826634.html [16 December 2013]. Coughlin, C. (2010) Binyam Mohamed: choose human rights or Britain’s protection?, The Daily Telegraph, [Online] Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/7206832/Binyam-Mohamed-choose-human-rights-or-Britains-protection.html [16 December 2013]. de Londras, F. (2010) ‘Human Rights Lexicon: Security v Rights and the Case of Binyam Mohamed’, Human Rights in Ireland, [Online] Available: http://www.humanrights.ie/index.php/2010/03/17/human-rights-lexicon-security-v-rights-and-the-case-of-binyam-mohamed/ [16 December 2013]. Herron, R. (2011) ‘Counter-Terrorism, Rights and the Rule of Law: How Far Have we Come Since Executive Detention?’ Human Rights in Ireland, [Online] Available: http://www.humanrights.ie/index.php/2011/09/07/counter-terrorism-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-how-far-have-we-come-since-executive-detention/ [16 December 2013].Human Rights Watch. (2010) Zambia: Police Brutality, Torture Rife, [Online] Available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/09/03/zambia-police-brutality-torture-rife [16 December 2013]. IBN, Prevention of Torture Bill: Par panel to consider suggestions, (22 September, 2010), [Online] Available at: http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/prevention-of-torture-bill-par-panel-to-consider-suggestions/343857.html [16 December 2013]. Johns, F. (2005) Guantanamo Bay and the Annihilation of the Exception, European Journal of International Law, EJIL 2005 16 (613), Issue 4. Kamau, E. (2006) The Police, The People, The Politics: Police Accountability in Tanzania, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, CHRI. Reidy, A. (2002) The Prohibition of Torture; A Guide to the Implementation of Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Human Rights Handbook, [Online] Available: http://www.coe.int/t/dgi/publications/hrhandbooks/HRHAND-06(2003)_en.pdf [14 December 2013]. Robson, G. 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Ethics in Information and Implementation Technology

Question: Discuss about the Ethics in Information and Implementation Technology. Answer: Introduction: Bitcoin is a form of digital currency that uses encryption technique to verify the transfer of funds between two peers. Therefore, it helps in completing currency operations without any third party payment providers (like banks and governments). This transaction technology was developed between 2008 and 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto who claimed that, it was developed in response to the economic crisis at that time. As described by Krugman in NY times, this process of transaction helps the users to be anonymous in the whole process, therefore it may happen that transactions are unethical and can be used in the criminal or terrorist activities (Angel McCabe, 2015). If we take the deontological perspective of ethics, then the use of the Bitcoin is unethical and surely evil for the economies of different countries. In deontological perspective, the act is more important than the result or consequences of it. In this ethical theory the morality of an action is decided according to some rules that are set by society. In case of Bitcoin, it seems thatit is used as a weapon which can damage central banking and money issuing institutions of a country (Guadamuz Marsden, 2014). Moreover, transactions have done through Bitcoin damages the ability of a government to monitor the transactions done by their citizens. This in turn also damages the ability of collecting taxes from the citizens. Here we can say that, as some wrong steps or actions are used in the whole transaction process it can be considered as unethical according to deontology theory. On the contrary the utilitarianism theory, the best moral actions are those which maximizes the utility of anything. In context of Bitcoin, it has increased the utility of the money as well as technology by encrypting the transaction process (Angel McCabe, 2015). This encryption can be helpful in preventing the frauds that are related to the monetary transaction. Meaning of problem of many hands" in computing/IT context In IT industry it is seen that when an individual is to be held responsible for any event then he or she must have influence on that certain event. It must be checked that if that person has not carried out his/her responsibility which may have prevented the accident or the harmful event. In case of information technology the, accidents in development and deployment of the technologies happens due to misunderstanding or negligence of several individuals involved in the development project (Thompson, 2014). It may be the fault of designers, maintenance staff or even of the policy makers in the organization. Therefore it can be stated that the contribution of several actors in development and deployment of technology is generally known as the Problem of many hands. The failure of any project or technology is a result of several factors. This factor includes inadequate testing, software errors and insufficient quality assurance by the developers. Moreover exaggerated claims about dependability, poor interface design and inadequate investigation or follow-up on accidents (Noorman, 2012). Therefore it is important for the IT industry and organizations to develop a tradition of accountability for the risks and faults that may occur due to the malfunctioning of the systems. It is also more important for the information technology as this industry is struggling with the level of standards and reliability of the different inventions or products. There is a misconception about the Problem of many hands, which is it only talks about the blame and liability for an accident (Thompson, 2014). In contrast with that, this helps in development of sense of responsibility in the employees or the members of the development team Functions professional codes of ethics (CoE) serve The professional code of ethics helps professionals to deal with the ethical dilemmas he/she may face in their career. Since the personal code of ethics is not effective in the different business situations, therefore it is important for organizations to set a standard of ethics in profession (Quinn, 2014). There are several types of code of ethics are in practice. Some of them are NSPE, AITP and IEEE code of ethics. Different code of ethics has different functionalities, but all of them share some common functionality. These functionalities are stated below, To symbolize the professionalism of a specific group. Protection of group interests. Inspiring good conduct and behavior at workplace (Fleischmann, Hui Wallace, 2016). Providing discipline to the employees. Specifies the rights of professionals. Helps professionals to foster relation with the clients of the organizations and other professionals (Quinn, 2014). Professionals should contribute to the wellbeing of the society and the human beings. It helps the professionals to provide proper credit to the owners of intellectual properties. This codes also helps professionals in acquiring and maintaining the professional competence. Criticism of Code of Ethics (CoE): The code of ethics sometimes can be counterproductive. The reason behind this is, code of ethics creates discrepancy between the actual and professional behavior. The professional code of ethics is both useful and important for the professionals (Fleischmann, Hui Wallace, 2016). On the contrary, the blind reliance on these codes acts as obstacle in the way of developing their own moral sensitivity. Sometimes it is also observed that, this code of ethics encourages the unrealistic expectations for the organizations. Therefore, it can be stated that, the code of ethics is not for every organization. Definition of digital divide and ways to overcome it The Digital Divide defines the differences between people who can access to the different resources of information and communication technology (ICT) (such as Internet) and people who do not have access to these resources. In this interconnected world till individuals and households are not able to use the advancement of the information and communication technology (Nakamura Chow-White, 2013). Day by day these connection or access gap is shifting to the knowledge gap in the different countries. According to different surveys, it is seen that there are almost 757 million adults in all over the world (including 115 million youths) are not able to read or write a simple sentence. Therefore to educate them and help them to explore the world of knowledge it is necessary to connect them with the different information and communication technology. Reasons to close the digital divide It is important to close the digital divide, so that the people residing at different regions of the world can get the knowledge and advantage of the advancement in different fields. More reasons to close the divide are, Healthier democracy: The use of internet and communication technology in a country can lead to better public participation in the elections and decision making process for the nation (Lopez, Gonzalez-Barrera Patten, 2013). Social mobility: The advancements in the information and communication technology can be helpful and play an important role in learning process, career development and professional work for the citizens of any country. Ways to overcome the digital divide Providing better internet coverage: Since the number of internet users in developing countries is too much low, therefore it is important for them to focus on greater coverage for the rural areas s most of the population lives in rural areas. Enhancement of ICT skills: The lack of education as well as ICT skills also has a impact on digital divide (Nakamura Chow-White, 2013). Therefore, to ensure that different public sector organizations integrate ICT in its different education initiatives. References Angel, J. J., McCabe, D. (2015). The Ethics of Payments: Paper, Plastic, or Bitcoin?.Journal of Business Ethics,132(3), 603-611. Fleischmann, K. R., Hui, C., Wallace, W. A. (2016). The Societal Responsibilities of Computational Modelers: Human Values and Professional Codes of Ethics.Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. Guadamuz, A., Marsden, C. (2014). Bitcoin: The Wrong Implementation of the Right Idea at the Right Time.Available at SSRN 2526736. Lopez, M. H., Gonzalez-Barrera, A., Patten, E. (2013).Closing the digital divide: Latinos and technology adoption. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center. Nakamura, L., Chow-White, P. (Eds.). (2013).Race after the Internet. Routledge. Noorman, M. (2012). Computing and moral responsibility. Quinn, M. J. (2014).Ethics for the information age. Pearson. Thompson, D. F. (2014). Responsibility for failures of government the problem of many hands.The American Review of Public Administration,44(3), 259-273.